ABB XV370ES 订货号GJR2317200R1主板

　　仪器仪表包括测量和控制功能。早期的仪器控制系统是荷兰发明家开发的恒温炉Cornelius Drebbel (1572–1634)，其中温度计通过杆和杠杆系统控制熔炉的温度。几乎同时出现了测量和调节锅炉内蒸汽压力的装置。1788 年，苏格兰人詹姆斯·瓦特发明了一种离心式调速器，以将蒸汽机的速度保持在预定的速度。

　　仪器仪表发展迅速18 世纪和 19 世纪的工业革命，特别是在尺寸测量、电气测量和物理分析领域。时间要求仪器的制造过程能够达到线性精度的新标准，部分由螺杆千分尺满足，其特殊型号可以达到 0.000025 毫米（0.000001 英寸）的精度。电力的工业应用需要测量电流、电压和电阻的仪器。使用显微镜和光谱仪等仪器的分析方法变得越来越重要。后一种仪器通过波长分析白炽物质发出的光辐射，开始用于识别成分化学物质和星星。

　　20世纪现代工业的发展，引进计算机化和太空探索的出现刺激了仪器仪表的更大发展，特别是电子设备的发展。通常使用换能器，一种将能量从一种形式转变为另一种形式的仪器（例如光电管、热电偶或麦克风），用于将要测量的能量样本转换为更容易处理和存储的电脉冲。1950 年代电子计算机的引入，具有强大的信息处理和存储能力，几乎彻底改变了仪器方法，因为它允许同时比较和分析大量信息。几乎同时，反馈系统得到了完善，其中来自过程的仪器监控阶段的数据被即时并用于调整影响过程的参数。反馈系统对于自动化流程的运行至关重要。

　　大多数制造过程依赖于监测化学、物理和环境特性以及生产线性能的仪器。监测化学性质的仪器包括折光仪、红外分析仪、色谱仪和 pH 传感器。折射计测量光束从一种材料传递到另一种材料时的弯曲情况；例如，此类仪器用于确定糖溶液的成分或番茄酱中番茄酱的浓度。红外分析仪可以通过它们发射或反射的红外辐射的波长和数量来识别物质。色谱法是一种灵敏而快速的化学分析方法，用于对极微小的物质样品进行分析，它依赖于材料吸附不同类型分子的不同速率。溶液的酸碱度可以通过 pH 传感器测量。

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　　Instrumentation involves both measurement and control functions. An early instrumental control system was the thermostatic furnace developed by the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel (1572–1634), in which a thermometer controlled the temperature of a furnace by a system of rods and levers. Devices to measure and regulate steam pressure inside a boiler appeared at about the same time. In 1788 the Scotsman James Watt invented a centrifugal governor to maintain the speed of a steam engine at a predetermined rate.

　　Instrumentation developed at a rapid pace in the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly in the areas of dimensional measurement, electrical measurement, and physical analysis. Manufacturing processes of the time required instruments capable of achieving new standards of linear precision, met in part by the screw micrometer, special models of which could attain a precision of 0.000025 mm (0.000001 inch). The industrial application of electricity required instruments to measure current, voltage, and resistance. Analytical methods, using such instruments as the microscope and the spectroscope, became increasingly important; the latter instrument, which analyzes by wave length the light radiation given off by incandescent substances, began to be used to identify the composition of chemical substances and stars.

　　In the 20th century the growth of modern industry, the introduction of computerization, and the advent of space exploration spurred still greater development of instrumentation, particularly of electronic devices. Often a transducer, an instrument that changes energy from one form into another (such as the photocell, thermocouple, or microphone) is used to transform a sample of the energy to be measured into electrical impulses that are more easily processed and stored. The introduction of the electronic computer in the 1950s, with its great capacity for information processing and storage, virtually revolutionized methods of instrumentation, for it allowed the simultaneous comparison and analysis of large amounts of information. At much the same time, feedback systems were perfected in which data from instruments monitoring stages of a process are instantaneously evaluated and used to adjust parameters affecting the process. Feedback systems are crucial to the operation of automated processes.

　　Most manufacturing processes rely on instrumentation for monitoring chemical, physical, and environmental properties, as well as the performance of production lines. Instruments to monitor chemical properties include the refractometer, infrared analyzers, chromatographs, and pH sensors. A refractometer measures the bending of a beam of light as it passes from one material to another; such instruments are used, for instance, to determine the composition of sugar solutions or the concentration of tomato paste in ketchup. Infrared analyzers can identify substances by the wavelength and amount of infrared radiation that they emit or reflect. Chromatography, a sensitive and swift method of chemical analysis used on extremely tiny samples of a substance, relies on the different rates at which a material will adsorb different types of molecules. The acidity or alkalinity of a solution can be measured by pH sensors.